The literacy myth: literacy, education and demography

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The history of literacy

Die Geschichte der geistigen Bildung wird selten zusammen mit anderen Aspekten der großen sozialen Veränderung betrachtet. Der Beitrag liefert eine fundierte Betrachtung der Anstrengungen und der Unzulänglichkeiten quantitativer Forschung über die Verbreitung des Lesens und Schreibens im Westen. Gleichzeitig werden Vorschläge für weitere qualitative Forschung gemacht, wodurch die folgenden Texte in einen kritischen Zusammenhang gestellt werden. (KWübers.)'The history of literacy is rarely treated together with other aspects of 'the great change'. This essay offers a sustained reflection on the achievements and shortcomings of quantitative research on the spread of reading and writing in the West. At the same time, it suggests several fruitful directions for further qualitative research and thereby puts the papers that follow into an argumentative context.' (author's abstract

Remaking Growing Up: Nineteenth-Century America

During the nineteenth century, a new stage of life, separating childhood from adulthood, emerged among the middle class. This newly recognized stage was characterized by prolonged dependency and extended schooling. This article, based in part on first person accounts of growing up, explores the forces which led to this life course transformation. It also explores the effects of this new set of values concerning adolescence on youngsters, according to gender and class.Au cours du 19e siècle, les classes moyennes décelèrent une nouvelle étape dans le cycle de vie : l'adolescence. Celle-ci se caractérisait par une dépendance prolongée vis-à-vis des parents et l'extension de la scolarité. Cet article, qui s'appuie en partie sur des sources autobiographiques, examine, d'une part, les facteurs qui amenèrent la reconnaissance de cette spécificité de l'adolescence et, d'autre part, l'impact des nouvelles conceptions de l'adolescence sur les jeunes, selon leur sexe ou leur classe

Distribution of Fe3+ and H in Minerals During Partial Melting and Metasomatism of Spinel Peridotite

Oxygen fugacity and water content are crucial parameters for many chemical and physical properties of the Earth's mantle, for example bearing on fluid type, melting initiation, and deformation. However, the exact behaviour of Fe3+ and H during melting and metasomatism is still under debate. Here, the Fe3+/Fe ratio (Mssbauer and EMP) and water content (FTIR) of peridotite minerals are examined in mantle xenoliths from Kilbourne Hole (KH), NM, and Dish Hill (DH), CA (USA). These spinel peridotites have compositions consistent with partial melting with variable degrees of metasomatism (undetectable to cryptic to modal). Pyroxenites also allow to examine melt-rock reactions. Bulk-rock Fe2O3 content of the KH peridotites correlates with indices of melting (positive with bulk-rock Al2O3 and Cpx Yb contents, and negative with spinel Cr#) confirming that Fe3+ behaves as an incompatible element during melting. Correlations of the Fe3+/Fe ratio of minerals with these indices, however, indicates that Fe3+ is incompatible in Cpx but compatible in Opx and spinel during melting. Water contents in olivine, Cpx and Opx from most KH peridotites can be explained by partial melting and correlate negatively with the Fe3+/Fe ratio of spinel and Opx but positively with that of Cpx. This indicates partial control of Fe3+ on the incorporation of H in pyroxene, but not related to a redox equilibrium in Cpx. The higher Fe3+/Fe ratio of spinel in the metasomatized KH and DH peridotites, and in the pyroxenites confirms that oxidation characterizes modal metasomatism. Metasomatism, however, is not necessarily accompanied by water addition

Midlatitude atmospheric circulation responses under 1.5C and 2.0C warming and implications for regional impacts

This study investigates the global response of the midlatitude atmospheric circulation to 1.5◦C and 5 2.0◦C of warming using the HAPPI “Half a degree Additional warming, Prognosis and Projected Im- pacts” ensemble, with a focus on the winter season. Characterizing and understanding this response is critical for accurately assessing the near-term regional impacts of climate change and the benefits of limiting warming to 1.5◦C above pre-industrial levels, as advocated by the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The HAPPI experimental 10 design allows an assessment of uncertainty in the circulation response due to model dependence and internal variability. Internal variability is found to dominate the multi-model mean response of the jet streams, storm tracks and stationary waves across most of the midlatitudes; larger signals in these features are mostly consistent with those seen in more strongly forced warming scenarios. Signals that emerge in the 1.5◦C experiment are a weakening of storm activity over North America, an inland 15 shift of the North American stationary ridge, an equatorward shift of the North Pacific jet exit, and an equatorward intensification of the South Pacific jet. Signals that emerge under an additional 0.5◦C of warming include a poleward shift of the North Atlantic jet exit, an eastward extension of the North Atlantic storm track, and an intensification on the flanks of the Southern Hemisphere storm track. Case studies explore the implications of these circulation responses for precipitation impacts in the 20 Mediterranean, western Europe and on the North American west coast, paying particular attention to possible outcomes at the tails of the response distributions. For example, the projected weakening of the Mediterranean storm track emerges in the 2◦C warmer world, with exceptionally dry decades becoming five times more likely